An Overview of Sociopathy, Psychopathy, and Antisocial Behavior Professor Ramos Blog

An Overview of Sociopathy, Psychopathy, and Antisocial Behavior https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1HgW0zEKOhVPNEfgXXJWTuS4WoJmwe1nd5RJR35Fowwg/edit?usp=sharing

Transitional Expressions - Definitions and Examples

Transitional Expressions s Definition A transitional expression is a word or phrase that shows how the meaning of one sentence is related to the meaning of the preceding sentence. Also called a  transition, transitional word, or signal word. Though important for establishing cohesion in a text, transitional expressions can be overworked to the point that they distract readers and obscure ideas. Overuse of these signals can seem heavy-handed, says Diane Hacker. Usually, you will use transitions quite naturally, just where readers need them (The Bedford Handbook, 2013). See Examples and Observations below. Also see: Exercise in Identifying Transitional ExpressionsTransitionCoherenceCohesion Exercise: Combining and Connecting SentencesCohesion Strategies: A List of Transitional Words and PhrasesCue WordSample Paragraphs: Junk Food Junkie and Confessions of a Slob Paragraph Transition Transitional Paragraph Examples and Observations Far to his left, in the northeast, beyond the valley and the terraced foothills of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the two volcanoes, Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, rose clear and magnificent into the sunset. Nearer, perhaps ten miles distant, and on a lower level than the main valley, he made out the village of Tomalà ­n, nestling behind the jungle, from which rose a thin blue scarf of illegal smoke, someone burning wood for carbon. Before him, on the other side of the American highway, spread fields and groves, through which meandered a river, and the Alcapancingo road.(Malcolm Lowry, Under the Volcano, 1947)The secret is that our holidays should rest not only our minds and bodies but our characters too. Take, for example, a good man. His goodness wants a holiday as much as his poor weary head or his exhausted body.(E.V. Lucas, The Perfect Holiday, 1912)Over the years his family had turned ironical and lost its gift for action. It was an honorable and violent family, but eventually the violence had been deflected and turned inward.(Walker Percy, The Last Gentleman, 1966) Santayana was the last aesthetician to describe beauty without self-consciousness; and that was in 1896. As a result, we now live in a relativists world where one mans beauty is another mans beast.(Gore Vidal, On Prettiness, 1978)If Larry shoots field goals at 0.6 probability of success, he will get five in a row about once every thirteen sequences (0.65). If Joe, by contrast, shoots only 0.3, he will get his five straight only about once in 412 times. In other words, we need no special explanation for the apparent pattern of long runs.(Stephen Jay Gould, The Streak of Streaks, 1988) Using But as a Transitional ExpressionLearn to alert the reader as soon as possible to any change in mood from the previous sentence. At least a dozen words will do the job for you: but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, instead, thus, therefore, meanwhile, now, later, today, subsequently, and several more. I cant overstate how much easier it is for readers to process a sentence if you start with but wh en youre shifting direction. . . .Many of us were taught that no sentence should begin with but. If thats what you learned, unlearn ittheres no stronger word at the start.(William Zinsser, On WritingWell, Collins, 2006) Using Specific TransitionsTransitional expressions within a paragraph and between paragraphs help the reader move from one detail or supporting point in an essay to the next. When first learning to organize an essay, beginning writers may start each body paragraph and every new example with a transitional expression (first, for example, next). These common transitions are useful and clear, but they can sound mechanical. To improve the flow of your ideas and the strength of your written voice, try to replace some of these expressions with specific phrases (at the start of the meeting or in some peoples minds) or with dependent clauses (when drivers use cell phones or as I approached the intersection).(Paige Wilson and Teresa Ferster Glazier, The Least You Should Know about English, Form A: Writing Skills, 11th ed. Wadsworth, 2012) It turns out . . .Incidentally, am I alone in finding the expression ‘it turns out’ to be incredibly useful? It allows you to make swift, succ inct, and authoritative connections between otherwise randomly unconnected statements without the trouble of explaining what your source or authority actually is. It’s great. It’s hugely better than its predecessors ‘I read somewhere that . . . or the craven they say that . . . because it suggests not only that whatever flimsy bit of urban mythology you are passing on is actually based on brand new, ground breaking research, but that it is research in which you yourself were intimately involved. But again, with no actual authority anywhere in sight.(Douglas Adams, Hangover Cures. The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time. Macmillan, 2002)

Max Weber Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Max Weber - Research Paper Example The major thesis of concern was the Protestant and the Spirit of Capitalism where he discussed economical sociology and sociology of religion. This thesis dealt with ascetic Protestantism as one of the main â€Å"elective affinities† which relates the rise of Western market which was driven by capitalism and rational-legal national-state. Weber emphasized on cultural influences as the bedrock of capitalism (Kalberg, 2002). In search for religion insight, Weber’s publication of protestant ethics, he was able to identify the non-development of capitalism in the societies: ancient Judaism, religion of China and religion of India and was able to analyze the social stratification of such societies. Weber’s methodological works were influential in launching the self-identity in modern social science as a field of inquiry. Empirical positivists and hermeneutic detractors got their inspiration from Weber. The most important of Weber’s work are the â€Å"Protestant Ethic thesis† which was about a non-Marxist genealogy of present capitalism and â€Å"Rationalization thesis† which talked about the analysis of the dominance of west in the present times. On top of these two works, his contribution to politics is only comparable to that of Machiavelli and Hobbes. Weber entered politics after the World War 1 and ran for a seat in parliament which he failed to capture. He served as an advisor to the ill-fated democratic draft of 1919 that is Weimar Constitution. His work was cut shot by the untimely death which occurred at a tender age of 56 in 1920. He contacted a Spanish flu and died of pneumonia. Weber was the eldest of the Max Weber Sr. born in 1884 in Erfurt, Thuringia. Weber sr. was a prominent civil servant and wealthy. He was the National Liberal Party member and married to Helene who was from French Huguenot and had strong ethical absolutist

Substitution and Income Effects Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Substitution and Income Effects - Essay Example Substitution effect pertains to the substitution that a consumer resorts to by substituting one product for other owing to the change in the relative prices of the two products (Pass, Lowes & Davies, 1993). Usually the shrinking in the price of a commodity is accompanied by an enhanced demand for it. A fraction of this increased demand occurs owing to the substitution effect. For instance, a fall in the price of gasoline, considering that the price of some alternate fuels like ethanol or LPG remains the same will make gasoline more attractive to me, thereby inducing me to substitute gasoline for the relatively more expensive fuel options. My choice of fuel for my auto also depends on the income impact effect by the change in the price of a fuel option. For instance, a fall in the price of gasoline will make me purchase more of it owing to a rise in my real income (Pass, Lowes & Davies, 1993). If my budget for auto fuel is $100 and say the price of gasoline is $10 per gallon, I can pu rchase 10 gallons of gasoline. Now, if the price of gasoline falls to $5 per gallon, I can buy 20 gallons of gasoline from the same budgetary allocation of $100 or in other words I can buy 10 gallons of gasoline for $50. Hence, I am left with an extra $50 to spend on purchasing more of gasoline or other goods I need. It is the substitution effect combined with income effect that explain as to why demand curves are mostly downward sloping. For instance, I can explain the substitution effect and income effect for a price increase in gasoline (X) on my fuel purchasing preferences by the below given graph. An increase in the price of gasoline causes my budget line for fuel to shift from B1 to B2. Suppose that my auto could run on both gasoline (X) and ethanol (Y). So I change my fuel consumption from the bundle of gasoline and ethanol represented by A to the bundle of gasoline and ethanol represented by B. This shift from A to B is indicative of the total effect of the change in the pri ce of gasoline. This fall in the amount purchased of gasoline from X1 to X2 occurs owing to two reasons. First it is the substitution effect because gasoline is now costlier than ethanol. Second it’s the income effect because my real budge

Persuasive reseach paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Persuasive reseach paper - Essay Example If a person goes against the nature or predetermined notions linked to the dog’s breed, it is an obvious phenomenon to face the negative reaction from that creature. In this context, judging the dog or any other animal as vicious or even dangerous does not qualify. The owner is somehow responsible for the dog’s negative reaction and not the guiltless animal. Before keeping a dog as a pet, the owner must read and research about that breed of dog. If there are certain factors which may hinder with the natural priorities of the dog, the owner should dismiss the idea of keeping it. The food requirements, living requirements, taming needs as well as attention requirements differ from one breed of dog to the other. Pit Bull dogs are not born to fight but they are tamed and motivated to do so. The recent incident where owner was accused of malnourishment of the Pit Bull dogs is linked to the NFL star Michael Vick. Vick has been found guilty of being cruel with animals when Pit Bull dogs were observed to be mistreated in his territory. The pit Bull dogs are observed to be wounded by fighting and were found to be half-starved. They were not taken care as was observed by their health and apparent condition. Vick was also accused of burying Pit Bulls on his property that lost their lives due to extremely violent fighting wounds. The example of Vick’s cruelty is evident in explaining how dogs are misused and misguided to perform cruel acts. It is obviously not the dog’s will to fight and get those serious wounds but for the entertainment and pleasure of the owner, the dogs are tamed to do such vicious acts. It should be noted that 47 Pit Bulls were saved from Vick’s property and 45 of them were rehabilitated effectively. One of the remaining 2 was euthanized for health risking factors and the other because of

Preventing Dengue Fever in the Mauritius

Preventing Dengue Fever in the Mauritius INTRODUCTION Mauritius is a small tropical island located at latitude 20à ¸ 18 0 S and longitude 57à ¸ 34 60 E. It has a tropical climatic condition. Mauritius has an area of about 2,040 sq km and is located to about 2000 kilometers from east west of Africa and some 800 kilometers from Madagascar. The positioning of Mauritius makes the latter a tropical country with moderately lofty temperature throughout the year. Winter and summer are the seasons that manifest onto the island. The island of Mauritius finds itself as one of the most accessible islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated amid R‚union island and Rodrigues island, the island of Mauritius has gained the reputation, through the course of time of that of the key and star of the Indian Ocean. The Mauritian population estimates for the year 2008 was about 1, 260, 781 with an annual growth rate of 0.7 %. Since the country is undergoing major developmental changes many industries have implanted here and thus the number of expatriates in the country is on the rise. These people may be a carrier of the disease and of course those Mauritians visiting the dengue endemic areas can also become infected and bring the disease in the country. It is an indisputable fact that during the lapsed decades, Mauritius has witnessed a multitude of diseases. The most prominent and recent one being Chikungunya which has infested merely about 12000 Mauritians. Furthermore, the history of diseases in Mauritius is marked with Malaria epidemics since colonial regimes and through the intensive effort of the Public Health sector, the latter has been proclaimed eradicated by the World Health Organization in 1973. Some years ago many of the realms citizens were not aware of what was dengue fever even though it had already occurred in the country but there was not mass infection by the virus. Providentially, the number of cases reported beforehand was only one or two and through the close collaboration between the Ministry Of Health and the infected person the situation was under control and hence no further positive case of dengue were recorded. The Mauritian government is putting forward all steps to prevent an epidemic rather than to rush for controlling it when it has already hit the population. The Ministry of Health is working on a list which highlights all water retaining sites and is identifying the hotspots of such sites that are liable to cause proliferation of mosquitoes; this process is carried out each year. Furthermore, an action plan is being prepared by the ministry which gives a layout of which and what job is to be done by which section of the ministry or other stakeholders (anonymous, 2009). Dengue viruses are transmitted by the Aedes species. Two known species the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are vectors of the disease. The Aedes albopictus can be found in large quantity all around the island whereas Aedes aegypti is said to be eradicated from the country. Surveillance on the abundance of mosquitoes is carried out by the entomological section throughout the year. All sites where mosquitoes that can be vectors of disease are seen, they are referred to the nearby health office for a larviciding to be carried out at that place and in the vicinity. Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is known as the Asian Tiger mosquito (Robertson and Hu, 1988). Aedes albopictus is native to Southeast Asia, but now occurs throughout the world. The worldwide spread of Aedes albopictus during the precedent 20 years has caused apprehension in the midst of public health officers and scientists over the possibility that the introduction of this species will amplify the risk of epidemic dengue fever and other arboviruses in countries where it has become established (Gubler, 2003). Aim The aim of this study is mainly to evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever in Mauritius. Emphasis will be laid on the steps taken before, during and after the disease occurrence. This might highlight the shortcomings that Mauritius face in order to manage outbreaks of diseases. Objectives of study The objectives of this dissertation are to evaluate the management, procedures and legislation that are implemented in Mauritius during outbreaks of dengue fever. Furthermore, most interest is geared towards the application of chemicals, preventive measures, and health education of the public carried out by the Ministry of Health Quality of Life to prevent the occurrence of the disease and also to annihilate if ever found in the island. To elucidate the effectiveness of fogging, larviciding carried out in the country and health education of the public. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Dengue 2.0.1 General considerations Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever were first identified in the 1950s, during the dengue epidemics in Philippines and Thailand and by 1975 it had become a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children in many countries found in that region (Lloyd, 2003). In the year 1779 Egypt and Java had dengue-like epidemics, but it is thought that they were caused by the chikungunya virus (Carey, 1971). Dengue virus belongs to the genus Flavivirus, Family Flavivaridae and there are four serotypes of the virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN 4). All the four serotypes can cause dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and even dengue shock syndrome (Ramchurn et al, 2009). The four viruses are closely related but are distinct. Millions of people residing in tropical areas of the world are affected by epidemics of dengue fever. Dengue fever is associated with the severe form dengue hemorrhagic fever/ dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) that is seen mostly in children and nevertheless adults also are attained by the disease. In the 19th and early 20th centuries dengue or dengue-like epidemics were reported in the Americas, Southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia and on various islands in the Indian Ocean, South and Central Pacific and the Caribbean (Ehrenkranz et al, 1971). Generally these epidemics consisted of nonfatal feverish illnesses, often coupled with rash and either muscle or joint pains (Carey, 1971). Deaths occurred during dengue epidemics in Australia in 1897 and in Greece in 1928, when over 1000 deaths were reported (Halstead, 1980). Hemorrhagic demonstrations, including gastrointestinal bleeding, were described during dengue epidemics in Texas and Louisiana in 1922 (Scott, 1923). Nevertheless through the first half of the 20th century, dengue was generally described as a self-limited, nonfatal febrile illness, with occasional hemorrhagic manifestations such as red spots, acute hemorrhage from the nostril, nasal cavity, or nasopharynx, gingival bleeding and menorrh agia that only once in a blue moon resulted in more stern or fatal outcomes. During the last decade, dengue infection along with its complications has been on the rise all over the world. Their geographical spread is increasing: only 5 countries documented dengue in the 1950s but to date there are more than 100 countries reporting the incidence of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (Guha -Sapi Schimmer, 2005). Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas (WHO, 2009). Dengue fever is a very infectious mosquito borne viral disease characterized by either a mild febrile syndrome or the classic incapacitating disease with abrupt onset of high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and bone or joint pains, nausea and vomiting and rash. Skin hemorrhages are not uncommon. Leukopenia is usually seen and thrombocytopenia may be observed (WHO 1997). Dengue is a flu-like mosquito-borne disease and has a soaring capacity for epidemic outbreaks, which according to the World Health Organization (2009) affects 50-100 million people each year in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Dengue is cited as being one of the most significant mosquito-borne disease affecting humans and as a major international public health concern (WHO 2009). Dengue fever is predominantly transmitted by Aedes species which have adapted themselves to living near human habitation (Hales et al., 2002). The dengue virus is a member of the family Flaviviridae virus, transmitted through the biting of infected Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito. The Aedes aegypti mosquito normally bites indoor and late in the afternoon whereas the proficient mosquito Aedes albopictus is an aggressive daytime biter, which is also known to bite early in the morning, late afternoon (Knight and Hull, 1952) and at night (Murray and Marks, 1984). This biter is usually an outdoor biting mosquito, but it also bites indoors (Hawley, 1988). Generally the mosquitoes bite at ground level (MacDonald and Traub, 1960, cited in Hawley, 1988). Females will bite any area of exposed skin, but prefer the ankles and knees (McClelland et al., 1973; Robertson and Hu, 1935). The time amid the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the apparition of symptoms ranges from 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14 days. 2.0.2 Pathogenicity of Dengue fever: 1. Asymptomatic and mild infection It is very common. 2. Dengue Fever (primary infection) Dengue fever is characterized by increase in body temperature; severe aching of the forehead; retro-ocular pain; muscle and joint pain; and widespread maculopapular inflammation. Conjunctiva may become red. Other common problems that may arise are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Fear of light, sore throat, increase in the size of the lymph node and bleeding tendencies may also happen. The illness lasts 5 to 7 days. Immunity is lifelong. On the other side the incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue Shock syndrome increases if the person has immunity or has already been infected before with a different serotype. Even after several months of recovery some patients may experience depression and fatigue. 3. Dengue Hemorrhagic fever The well-known feature is bleeding. It happens when a person is infected twice but with a different dengue virus serotypes or infrequently by primary infection is common in kids Under 15 years of Age (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). There is sudden rise in temperature and other manifestations of Dengue fever. Petechiae, effortless bruising, gingival bleeding and epistaxis are common. In severe cases bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract can be observed. In children, we can have an increase in the size of the spleen and the liver. 4. Dengue Shock Syndrome The prominent feature is hypotension. It normally occurs in people below 15 years of age. The clinical features include weak pulse with narrow blood pressure, cold and clammy skin (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). 2.0.3 Mode of transmission of dengue virus: Chikungunya and dengue viruses are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. In contrast, Aedes albopictus is abundant and may be the only important vector of these viruses on the islands. Both species bite mainly during the daytime, particularly in the early hours after dawn and for 2-3 hours before darkness. Aedes albopictus is more active outdoors whereas Ae. aegypti typically feeds and rests more indoors (WHO 2008). In the cycle of dengue, the vertebrate host is man and the Aedes species the vectors. The disease is acquired only when bitten by female mosquitoes, as the female feed on blood in order for the development of their eggs whereas the male mosquitoes are not infectious due to the fact that they feed only on nectars rather than blood. In 8-10 days the infected mosquito is able to transmit the virus to other people. Thus the cycle of transmission takes only 14 days. One dengue-infected female mosquito is capable of biting and infecting several people during one feeding session. The dengue mosquito frequents backyards in search of containers holding water inside and outside the home, such as: cans, buckets, jars, and vases, pot plant dishes, birdbaths, boats, tyres discarded with no rims, roof gutters blocked by leaves striking containers, tarpaulins and black plastic. It can also breed in natural containers like: bromeliads fallen palm fronds. In drier conditions it also breeds in water inà ¿subterranean sites such as: wells, telecommunication pits, sump pits, gully traps. Transmission cycle of dengue results from a complex system based on several main constituents like: the density of susceptible hosts, environmental conditions and the presence of one or more serotypes of the dengue virus. The number of confirmed dengue cases has been increasing owing to the fact that the world is undergoing rapid urbanization and its population is also on the rise, disposal of non-biodegradable containers, rapid transportation and poor living conditions such as poor water supply and very rare scavenging services at squatter areas (Satwant, 2001). Various studies have shown that the Aedes albopictus is able to transmit all the 4 serotypes of dengue. Aedes albopictus mosquito can serve as an important maintenance vector of dengue viruses in endemic areas, and new endemic areas may be initiated by importation of vertically infected eggs (Gubler, 2002). That is the infected Aedes mosquito can pass the dengue virus to its progeny and when the eggs will develop into mature mosquitoes they will be already infected, hence capable of causing infection of human beings or even pass the virus to their progeny. Transmission cycle of dengue virus by the Aedes aegypti mosquito starts with a person infected with the dengue virus. The blood of the person will contain the virus thus circulating in his body and this is called a viremia which will last for about 5 days. During this period, an uninfected female Aedes aegypti mosquito bites the infected person and acquires the dengue virus. Within the mosquito, replication of the dengue virus occurs and this process usually takes between 8-12 days, after which the female mosquito can transmit the virus upon a blood meal. Once infected the virus takes 4-7 days to replicate within the new host (the person whom the infected mosquito bite) before inception of symptoms. Symptoms may last from three to 10 days, with an average of five days, after the onset of symptoms. Hence, the disease persists several days after apparition of symptoms (CDC Dengue Slideset). 2.0.4 Lifecycle of Aedes mosquito: The mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and they are as follows: Egg, Larva, pupa, and adult. Each of these stages can be easily recognized by their special appearance. Egg: Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water. Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately. Aedes lay their eggs on damp soil that will be flooded by water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours. Larva: The larva lives in the water where they eventually undergo a molting process to become a pupa. Pupa: The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage and is the time the mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about two days before the adult is fully developed and upon complete development, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito emerges as an adult. Adult: The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short time before flying away. In the Aedes mosquito family only the female bites because it requires protein to develop eggs, therefore if it bites a person infected with the dengue virus the mosquito becomes infectious after approximately 7 days. The mosquitoes are known to be biting at a highest frequency at dawn and dusk. Some more facts: The average lifespan of a mosquito of the genus Aedes in Nature is 2 weeks Mosquitoes may lay eggs about 3 times in his life, and about 100 eggs are produced each time. The eggs can live in dry conditions until approximately 9 months, after which they can hatch if it is subject to conditions, i.e food and water Source:http://dengue-feverdisease.blogspot.com/2008/02/lifecycle-of-aedes-mosquito.html [accessed on 05.12.09] 2.0.5 Investigation for dengue infections: Laboratory results Decrease in the number of white blood cell and peripheral neutrophils in the blood, abnormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in bloodstream and very low amount of platelets in the blood. Radiology X-ray of the chest normally shows pleural effusion and seldom pericardial effusion Ultrasound Used to detect pericardial effusion and 2) presence of excess fluids in the gap amid the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organ. Tests Laboratory diagnosis is done by detection of virus in specimen-serum at the virology laboratory. Culture is done in cell line derived from A. albopictus cell. Immunoflurescent techniques are used to detect viral replications. The virus can be isolated in patients with fever. Serology IgM is detectable in 90 % of patients by the 6th days of illness. Serum collected early may give false negative result. IgM can also be detected 2-3 months after. It is not possible to identify serotype with serological tests. In case where the IgM test is Positive it may imply recent infection with Dengue fever. However definitive diagnosis can only be made if the virus is isolated or the virus genome is detected by PCR. Seroconversion or boost in titer may indicate fresh infection. The appropriate samples for PCR test include plasma and serum. Molecular test is highly sensitive but it can be used in patients only with viraemia (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). 2.0.6 Treatment: The managing of dengue fever can be enhanced with bed rest, passable fluid intake, plus control of fever and pain with antipyretics in addition to analgesics (e.g. paracetamol). For the supplementary ruthless manifestations of dengue virus infection, correct management requires early identification and swift intravenous fluid substitution. Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases. There is currently no vaccine is available to shield against dengue infection. The current lack of a booming vaccine against the dengue virus causes prevention methods to be approached by plummeting disease vector population, with Integrated Pest Management programs for mosquito control. These employ a mishmash of control strategies, including mosquito surveillance, source diminution, eradicating larvae and eradicating adult mosquitoes (Ooi et al. 2007). Eradicating adult mosquitoes alone is fruitless in controlling mosquito populations because it is complex to treat the unattainable habitat of the adults. Mosquito larvae are left to carry on their development, and they quickly swap the adults. Nevertheless, mosquitoes can become resistant if pesticides are overused. 2.0.7 Dengue fever in Mauritius: Dengue virus infections are emerging as the major ones in Southeast Asia. Global warming may worsen the occurrence of dengue fever. Since very last few years mixed outbreak of chikungunya and periodic cases of dengue fever have been reported on R‚union Island and other South West Indian Ocean countries. From March 2005 till March 2006 it is estimated that about 204000 people in R‚union Island may have been infected by the chikungunya virus, which furthermore shows that there is presence of the transmitting vectors of the disease on the island which are also the vectors of dengue fever as well. Hereafter, the other South West Indian ocean countries were not spared from infection from the chikungunya virus. An outbreak of dengue fever was reported in Madagascar more specifically in the city of Toamasina that started mid-January 2006 and rare cases of chikungunya were also reported mid-February. Maldives also have suffered from a dengue outbreak in year 2006 where 602 people were suspected to be infected among which there were some severe form of dengue fever that is 64 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases and 9 cases of dengue shock syndrome (WHO 2006). In Mauritius the first case of dengue fever dates to the 1976s and it was contained thus limiting the disease from spreading. Then we had a case of imported dengue from a person who visited an endemic dengue area in January 2008 (CDCU). The main vectors of the disease remain the Aedes mosquitoes, among which the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector and Aedes albopictus the secondary one. The mosquito found to be spreading dengue fever and Chikungunya in Mauritius is the Aedes albopictus (CDCU 2009). It is to be noted that in Mauritius we had both the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, due to the intense anti-malaria campaign during the year 1952 the primary carrier of the dengue fever, the Aedes aegypti have been successfully eradicated. Still very minute amounts of this mosquito can be seen whereas the Aedes albopictus is abundant. Dengue is transmitted from person to person through the biting of infected mosquitoes. Most recently we had a short-lived epidemic of re-emerged dengue fever in Mauritius that started in the month of June 2009 which was imported. The mild fever was first localized in the city of Port Louis, where there were 192 cases and then we did have some sporadic cases in other regions of the island. Mosquito fogging and larviciding in whole Port Louis started on 3rd June 2009, and were repeated every seven days. Fogging was carried out outdoors early in the morning, early evenings and sometimes till late in the evenings (Dengue Unit 2009). The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life of Mauritius took the situation as being severe and all medium possible to contain the disease were put into action. Like the Special Mobile Force and manpower from other Ministries which joined the Ministry of Health to fight the dengue fever. Public alertness campaigns on the requisite to hunt and eliminate mosquito breeding sites at home and in the neighbourhood and to protect oneself against mosquito bites were carried out through radio, television and the press through a public private partnership. Detailed information leaflets were also distributed, door to door distribution of pamphlets showing pictures of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes and products to be used to prevent mosquito bite were carried out by the primary health care personnels. Target groups included the public, community groups and school children (Ramchurn et al, 2009). By the end of the month August no new or suspected cases of dengue were recorded in any of the countrys hospital. But still the control and prevention program were continued throughout the island as the summer season was coming near hence reappearance of the dengue fever was possible due to the ambient temperature, favorable for larvae development. The fear of having the virus again was due to the possibility of the infected mosquitoes to pass the virus to their progeny. Fortunately, till February 2010 no suspected case of dengue fever was reported from any in the country (Dengue Unit 2010). 2.1 Vector surveillance and control program Ever since mosquitoes are capable of transmitting diseases like dengue and chikungunya, till now it has not been possible to eradicate the mosquitoes completely from their originating site. The best way to monitor or control vector-borne diseases is to control or limit the population of the vector to such an extent that disease transmission is very low or even stopped. In order to achieve this goal, it is imperative to know all about the mosquito involved in the transmission of the disease. Detailed knowledge of all aspects such as the breeding sites, different features of the mosquito at different stages, feeding habits, mating, resting and structure and most importantly without forgetting the lifecycle of the mosquito, are the main required things in order to be able to break the chain of transmission. Furthermore, the only way to prevent infection of people who have not suffered from dengue is to control the population of dengue vector (Ooi et al.2001) and of course personal precaution has also proved to be effective in reducing the risk of being infected by a mosquito. Since no vaccine is yet available for dengue the only mode to control dengue fever is the control the amount of the disease vector that is of the Aedes mosquitoes. The control strategies of these mosquitoes are 1) carrying out larviciding -spraying a chemical called abate in any water retaining place which kill the larvae of the mosquitoes hence interrupting the cycle to be completed, 2) fogging operation- a thermal fogger is used to propel fumes of Aqua K-Othriner which when is in contact with a mosquito kills it, thus the amount of developed or simply mature mosquitoes are reduced and 3) health education- talks are organized for the members of the public, for children in schools, colleges, etc. Entomological survey is an important and integral part of dengue prevention and control. The effect of the intervention by the community can directly affect the ecology of the vectors that is the Aedes mosquitoes. The Communicable Disease Control Unit (CDCU) is the unit which is mostly concerned for the control of communicable diseases such as Malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, and other infectious diseases. In Mauritius, surveillance, disease prevention and education of infectious diseases are mainly carried out by the Health Inspectorate Cadre. In Mauritius, we have the Public Health Act (Section 32A) which is used in case where there is presence of a mosquito borne disease in the island. The potential for predation to prevent pathogen invasion or reduce disease prevalence in a host population also has implications for the biological control of vector populations. Predators have been introduced, or proposed, as biological control agents of vectors for various diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and Lyme disease (Jenkins 1964; Legner 1995; Stauffer et al. 1997; Samish Rehacek 1999; Scholte et al. 2005; Kumar Hwang 2006; Ostfeld et al. 2006; Walker Lynch 2007). Several recent studies suggest that predator introductions led to a decline in local cases of dengue fever in Vietnam and Thailand (Kay Nam 2005; Kittayapong et al. 2008), and malaria in India (Ghosh et al. 2005; Ghosh Dash 2007). 2.2 Biology of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) Aedes albopictus are two winged insects from the family Culicidae of the order Diptera. They are among the best known groups due to their importance as pests and as vectors of diseases. They are easily identified due to a combination of the following characters: long trunk projecting head; charisma of scales on the wing veins, a tassel of scales along the posterior boundary of the wing, and the typical wing venation, the second, fourth and fifth longitudinal veins being branched (Miyagi and Toma 2000). Female mosquitoes feed on blood and they have highly specialized mothparts for piercing host skin and blood sucking (Wahid et al. 2002). Aedes species are normally day-time bitters and active during the day. During this time, they have peaks of landing and biting activity. The peak time for Aedes albopictus occurred about one hour after sunrise and then before sunset (Abu Hassan et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the rate of biting varies depending on the mosquito age and time of the day (Xue and Barnard 1996). CHAPTER 3 DATA COLLECTION 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, a summary of the various steps that was undertaken to finalize the research is attempted. The research work was started as from the month of September 2009 to the end of January 2010. 3.2 METHODOLOGY In order to assess the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever, data were collected from the different partners who are involved in the control and prevention of dengue fever in Mauritius. Such data were collected from books, newspapers, published articles, magazines and official statistics from the Central Statistics Office, Dengue Unit, Communicable Disease Control Unit and the Ministry of Health Quality of Life. Moreover, constructive discussions were entertained with people who are in touch with the matters connecting to the piece of work. Search through the internet, review of available documents and properly classifying the information that would be used during the study. 3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINED Questions related with the way of application of the different control measures were selected for analysis from the filled questionnaires. Moreover, each particular question was analyzed by using SPSS software which provided the frequency and percentages and hence Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to express the data in forms of percentages, tables, figures, graphs, pie charts and charts. Chapter 4 Part I-Data Analysis 4.01 Introduction This chapter of the thesis will be dealing with the data collected from different stakeholders involved in the fight against dengue fever. Data collected mainly from the Communicable Disease Control Unit, Dengue Unit, and certain Health Offices of the country and the media will be expressed in figures. This section will be divided in to two parts: data analysis and press cot analysis. Much attention will be oriented towards the control measures in Port Louis, as the maximum number of cases occurred there and eventually the island in whole. 4.02 Progress of the disease through June 2009 in Port Louis Figure 4.1: Number of cases each day during the month of June 2009 From figure 4.1 it can be seen that the first case was detected on 2nd June 2009 and the maximum number of cases reported to the hospitals was around the 10th to 13th day of the same month. The number of confirmed cases by the end of June 2009 had decreased to less than five. 4.03 Age of people infected with dengue virus From the above chart (Fig 4.2) it can seen that about 34.55 % of the total number of cases (246 confirmed) of dengue were vulnerable ones that is the young and the elderly. 4.04 Aqua K Othriner used for fogging process Aqua K Othriner is a chemical used in mixture with another chemical substance called Nebolr, in thermal foggers to kill adult mosquitoes. Normally, the fogger produces fumes which in fact are fine droplets of the mixture which when in contact with a mosquito causes its death. The first day of fogging was started on 2nd June 2009 with a minimum cubic centimeter of Aqua K Othriner used, on the 7th day the maximum and throughout the rest of the days varying just a little in amount except for the 14th day. 4.05 Number of inspections carried out during the past 8 years throughout the Country Starting from the year 2001 till 2005 from the graph (fig 4.4) the number of inspections carried out by the health inspectorate cadre shows a slight decrease and suddenly in 2006 the number increases to approximately 3 fold than that in 2005. In year 2007, the amount of inspections carried again decreases to 112,087 and eventually for 2008 the number decreases a bit more. 4.06 Number of sanitary notices served during the past 8 years Public Health Act Sanitary notices are normally issued to the author of nuisance, as for in this case the notices served were to cause removal of water collected in used tyres, drums, roof tops, etc. From the year 2001 till 2005 the number of such type of notices served was ranging between 4933 and 8013. For 2006 the figure was the highest with 10657 of notices served and for the remaining 2 years a gradual decrease was noted. 4.07 Number of contraventions taken for none compliance with the Public Health Laws Notices Figur Preventing Dengue Fever in the Mauritius Preventing Dengue Fever in the Mauritius INTRODUCTION Mauritius is a small tropical island located at latitude 20à ¸ 18 0 S and longitude 57à ¸ 34 60 E. It has a tropical climatic condition. Mauritius has an area of about 2,040 sq km and is located to about 2000 kilometers from east west of Africa and some 800 kilometers from Madagascar. The positioning of Mauritius makes the latter a tropical country with moderately lofty temperature throughout the year. Winter and summer are the seasons that manifest onto the island. The island of Mauritius finds itself as one of the most accessible islands in the Indian Ocean. Situated amid R‚union island and Rodrigues island, the island of Mauritius has gained the reputation, through the course of time of that of the key and star of the Indian Ocean. The Mauritian population estimates for the year 2008 was about 1, 260, 781 with an annual growth rate of 0.7 %. Since the country is undergoing major developmental changes many industries have implanted here and thus the number of expatriates in the country is on the rise. These people may be a carrier of the disease and of course those Mauritians visiting the dengue endemic areas can also become infected and bring the disease in the country. It is an indisputable fact that during the lapsed decades, Mauritius has witnessed a multitude of diseases. The most prominent and recent one being Chikungunya which has infested merely about 12000 Mauritians. Furthermore, the history of diseases in Mauritius is marked with Malaria epidemics since colonial regimes and through the intensive effort of the Public Health sector, the latter has been proclaimed eradicated by the World Health Organization in 1973. Some years ago many of the realms citizens were not aware of what was dengue fever even though it had already occurred in the country but there was not mass infection by the virus. Providentially, the number of cases reported beforehand was only one or two and through the close collaboration between the Ministry Of Health and the infected person the situation was under control and hence no further positive case of dengue were recorded. The Mauritian government is putting forward all steps to prevent an epidemic rather than to rush for controlling it when it has already hit the population. The Ministry of Health is working on a list which highlights all water retaining sites and is identifying the hotspots of such sites that are liable to cause proliferation of mosquitoes; this process is carried out each year. Furthermore, an action plan is being prepared by the ministry which gives a layout of which and what job is to be done by which section of the ministry or other stakeholders (anonymous, 2009). Dengue viruses are transmitted by the Aedes species. Two known species the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are vectors of the disease. The Aedes albopictus can be found in large quantity all around the island whereas Aedes aegypti is said to be eradicated from the country. Surveillance on the abundance of mosquitoes is carried out by the entomological section throughout the year. All sites where mosquitoes that can be vectors of disease are seen, they are referred to the nearby health office for a larviciding to be carried out at that place and in the vicinity. Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is known as the Asian Tiger mosquito (Robertson and Hu, 1988). Aedes albopictus is native to Southeast Asia, but now occurs throughout the world. The worldwide spread of Aedes albopictus during the precedent 20 years has caused apprehension in the midst of public health officers and scientists over the possibility that the introduction of this species will amplify the risk of epidemic dengue fever and other arboviruses in countries where it has become established (Gubler, 2003). Aim The aim of this study is mainly to evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever in Mauritius. Emphasis will be laid on the steps taken before, during and after the disease occurrence. This might highlight the shortcomings that Mauritius face in order to manage outbreaks of diseases. Objectives of study The objectives of this dissertation are to evaluate the management, procedures and legislation that are implemented in Mauritius during outbreaks of dengue fever. Furthermore, most interest is geared towards the application of chemicals, preventive measures, and health education of the public carried out by the Ministry of Health Quality of Life to prevent the occurrence of the disease and also to annihilate if ever found in the island. To elucidate the effectiveness of fogging, larviciding carried out in the country and health education of the public. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Dengue 2.0.1 General considerations Dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever were first identified in the 1950s, during the dengue epidemics in Philippines and Thailand and by 1975 it had become a leading cause of hospitalization and death among children in many countries found in that region (Lloyd, 2003). In the year 1779 Egypt and Java had dengue-like epidemics, but it is thought that they were caused by the chikungunya virus (Carey, 1971). Dengue virus belongs to the genus Flavivirus, Family Flavivaridae and there are four serotypes of the virus (DEN-1, DEN-2, DEN-3 and DEN 4). All the four serotypes can cause dengue fever, dengue hemorrhagic fever and even dengue shock syndrome (Ramchurn et al, 2009). The four viruses are closely related but are distinct. Millions of people residing in tropical areas of the world are affected by epidemics of dengue fever. Dengue fever is associated with the severe form dengue hemorrhagic fever/ dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) that is seen mostly in children and nevertheless adults also are attained by the disease. In the 19th and early 20th centuries dengue or dengue-like epidemics were reported in the Americas, Southern Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Australia and on various islands in the Indian Ocean, South and Central Pacific and the Caribbean (Ehrenkranz et al, 1971). Generally these epidemics consisted of nonfatal feverish illnesses, often coupled with rash and either muscle or joint pains (Carey, 1971). Deaths occurred during dengue epidemics in Australia in 1897 and in Greece in 1928, when over 1000 deaths were reported (Halstead, 1980). Hemorrhagic demonstrations, including gastrointestinal bleeding, were described during dengue epidemics in Texas and Louisiana in 1922 (Scott, 1923). Nevertheless through the first half of the 20th century, dengue was generally described as a self-limited, nonfatal febrile illness, with occasional hemorrhagic manifestations such as red spots, acute hemorrhage from the nostril, nasal cavity, or nasopharynx, gingival bleeding and menorrh agia that only once in a blue moon resulted in more stern or fatal outcomes. During the last decade, dengue infection along with its complications has been on the rise all over the world. Their geographical spread is increasing: only 5 countries documented dengue in the 1950s but to date there are more than 100 countries reporting the incidence of dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (Guha -Sapi Schimmer, 2005). Dengue is found in tropical and sub-tropical climates worldwide, mostly in urban and semi-urban areas (WHO, 2009). Dengue fever is a very infectious mosquito borne viral disease characterized by either a mild febrile syndrome or the classic incapacitating disease with abrupt onset of high fever, severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and bone or joint pains, nausea and vomiting and rash. Skin hemorrhages are not uncommon. Leukopenia is usually seen and thrombocytopenia may be observed (WHO 1997). Dengue is a flu-like mosquito-borne disease and has a soaring capacity for epidemic outbreaks, which according to the World Health Organization (2009) affects 50-100 million people each year in the tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Dengue is cited as being one of the most significant mosquito-borne disease affecting humans and as a major international public health concern (WHO 2009). Dengue fever is predominantly transmitted by Aedes species which have adapted themselves to living near human habitation (Hales et al., 2002). The dengue virus is a member of the family Flaviviridae virus, transmitted through the biting of infected Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquito. The Aedes aegypti mosquito normally bites indoor and late in the afternoon whereas the proficient mosquito Aedes albopictus is an aggressive daytime biter, which is also known to bite early in the morning, late afternoon (Knight and Hull, 1952) and at night (Murray and Marks, 1984). This biter is usually an outdoor biting mosquito, but it also bites indoors (Hawley, 1988). Generally the mosquitoes bite at ground level (MacDonald and Traub, 1960, cited in Hawley, 1988). Females will bite any area of exposed skin, but prefer the ankles and knees (McClelland et al., 1973; Robertson and Hu, 1935). The time amid the bite of a mosquito carrying dengue virus and the apparition of symptoms ranges from 4 to 6 days, with a range of 3 to 14 days. 2.0.2 Pathogenicity of Dengue fever: 1. Asymptomatic and mild infection It is very common. 2. Dengue Fever (primary infection) Dengue fever is characterized by increase in body temperature; severe aching of the forehead; retro-ocular pain; muscle and joint pain; and widespread maculopapular inflammation. Conjunctiva may become red. Other common problems that may arise are diarrhea, vomiting, nausea and abdominal pain. Fear of light, sore throat, increase in the size of the lymph node and bleeding tendencies may also happen. The illness lasts 5 to 7 days. Immunity is lifelong. On the other side the incidence of Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever or Dengue Shock syndrome increases if the person has immunity or has already been infected before with a different serotype. Even after several months of recovery some patients may experience depression and fatigue. 3. Dengue Hemorrhagic fever The well-known feature is bleeding. It happens when a person is infected twice but with a different dengue virus serotypes or infrequently by primary infection is common in kids Under 15 years of Age (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). There is sudden rise in temperature and other manifestations of Dengue fever. Petechiae, effortless bruising, gingival bleeding and epistaxis are common. In severe cases bleeding of the gastrointestinal tract can be observed. In children, we can have an increase in the size of the spleen and the liver. 4. Dengue Shock Syndrome The prominent feature is hypotension. It normally occurs in people below 15 years of age. The clinical features include weak pulse with narrow blood pressure, cold and clammy skin (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). 2.0.3 Mode of transmission of dengue virus: Chikungunya and dengue viruses are transmitted to humans by the bites of infected mosquitoes. In contrast, Aedes albopictus is abundant and may be the only important vector of these viruses on the islands. Both species bite mainly during the daytime, particularly in the early hours after dawn and for 2-3 hours before darkness. Aedes albopictus is more active outdoors whereas Ae. aegypti typically feeds and rests more indoors (WHO 2008). In the cycle of dengue, the vertebrate host is man and the Aedes species the vectors. The disease is acquired only when bitten by female mosquitoes, as the female feed on blood in order for the development of their eggs whereas the male mosquitoes are not infectious due to the fact that they feed only on nectars rather than blood. In 8-10 days the infected mosquito is able to transmit the virus to other people. Thus the cycle of transmission takes only 14 days. One dengue-infected female mosquito is capable of biting and infecting several people during one feeding session. The dengue mosquito frequents backyards in search of containers holding water inside and outside the home, such as: cans, buckets, jars, and vases, pot plant dishes, birdbaths, boats, tyres discarded with no rims, roof gutters blocked by leaves striking containers, tarpaulins and black plastic. It can also breed in natural containers like: bromeliads fallen palm fronds. In drier conditions it also breeds in water inà ¿subterranean sites such as: wells, telecommunication pits, sump pits, gully traps. Transmission cycle of dengue results from a complex system based on several main constituents like: the density of susceptible hosts, environmental conditions and the presence of one or more serotypes of the dengue virus. The number of confirmed dengue cases has been increasing owing to the fact that the world is undergoing rapid urbanization and its population is also on the rise, disposal of non-biodegradable containers, rapid transportation and poor living conditions such as poor water supply and very rare scavenging services at squatter areas (Satwant, 2001). Various studies have shown that the Aedes albopictus is able to transmit all the 4 serotypes of dengue. Aedes albopictus mosquito can serve as an important maintenance vector of dengue viruses in endemic areas, and new endemic areas may be initiated by importation of vertically infected eggs (Gubler, 2002). That is the infected Aedes mosquito can pass the dengue virus to its progeny and when the eggs will develop into mature mosquitoes they will be already infected, hence capable of causing infection of human beings or even pass the virus to their progeny. Transmission cycle of dengue virus by the Aedes aegypti mosquito starts with a person infected with the dengue virus. The blood of the person will contain the virus thus circulating in his body and this is called a viremia which will last for about 5 days. During this period, an uninfected female Aedes aegypti mosquito bites the infected person and acquires the dengue virus. Within the mosquito, replication of the dengue virus occurs and this process usually takes between 8-12 days, after which the female mosquito can transmit the virus upon a blood meal. Once infected the virus takes 4-7 days to replicate within the new host (the person whom the infected mosquito bite) before inception of symptoms. Symptoms may last from three to 10 days, with an average of five days, after the onset of symptoms. Hence, the disease persists several days after apparition of symptoms (CDC Dengue Slideset). 2.0.4 Lifecycle of Aedes mosquito: The mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle and they are as follows: Egg, Larva, pupa, and adult. Each of these stages can be easily recognized by their special appearance. Egg: Eggs are laid one at a time and they float on the surface of the water. Aedes species do not make egg rafts but lay their eggs separately. Aedes lay their eggs on damp soil that will be flooded by water. Most eggs hatch into larvae within 48 hours. Larva: The larva lives in the water where they eventually undergo a molting process to become a pupa. Pupa: The pupal stage is a resting, non-feeding stage and is the time the mosquito turns into an adult. It takes about two days before the adult is fully developed and upon complete development, the pupal skin splits and the mosquito emerges as an adult. Adult: The newly emerged adult rests on the surface of the water for a short time before flying away. In the Aedes mosquito family only the female bites because it requires protein to develop eggs, therefore if it bites a person infected with the dengue virus the mosquito becomes infectious after approximately 7 days. The mosquitoes are known to be biting at a highest frequency at dawn and dusk. Some more facts: The average lifespan of a mosquito of the genus Aedes in Nature is 2 weeks Mosquitoes may lay eggs about 3 times in his life, and about 100 eggs are produced each time. The eggs can live in dry conditions until approximately 9 months, after which they can hatch if it is subject to conditions, i.e food and water Source:http://dengue-feverdisease.blogspot.com/2008/02/lifecycle-of-aedes-mosquito.html [accessed on 05.12.09] 2.0.5 Investigation for dengue infections: Laboratory results Decrease in the number of white blood cell and peripheral neutrophils in the blood, abnormal increase in the number of lymphocytes in bloodstream and very low amount of platelets in the blood. Radiology X-ray of the chest normally shows pleural effusion and seldom pericardial effusion Ultrasound Used to detect pericardial effusion and 2) presence of excess fluids in the gap amid the tissues lining the abdomen and abdominal organ. Tests Laboratory diagnosis is done by detection of virus in specimen-serum at the virology laboratory. Culture is done in cell line derived from A. albopictus cell. Immunoflurescent techniques are used to detect viral replications. The virus can be isolated in patients with fever. Serology IgM is detectable in 90 % of patients by the 6th days of illness. Serum collected early may give false negative result. IgM can also be detected 2-3 months after. It is not possible to identify serotype with serological tests. In case where the IgM test is Positive it may imply recent infection with Dengue fever. However definitive diagnosis can only be made if the virus is isolated or the virus genome is detected by PCR. Seroconversion or boost in titer may indicate fresh infection. The appropriate samples for PCR test include plasma and serum. Molecular test is highly sensitive but it can be used in patients only with viraemia (Rigall-Pewrez et al.1998). 2.0.6 Treatment: The managing of dengue fever can be enhanced with bed rest, passable fluid intake, plus control of fever and pain with antipyretics in addition to analgesics (e.g. paracetamol). For the supplementary ruthless manifestations of dengue virus infection, correct management requires early identification and swift intravenous fluid substitution. Blood transfusion may be necessary in cases. There is currently no vaccine is available to shield against dengue infection. The current lack of a booming vaccine against the dengue virus causes prevention methods to be approached by plummeting disease vector population, with Integrated Pest Management programs for mosquito control. These employ a mishmash of control strategies, including mosquito surveillance, source diminution, eradicating larvae and eradicating adult mosquitoes (Ooi et al. 2007). Eradicating adult mosquitoes alone is fruitless in controlling mosquito populations because it is complex to treat the unattainable habitat of the adults. Mosquito larvae are left to carry on their development, and they quickly swap the adults. Nevertheless, mosquitoes can become resistant if pesticides are overused. 2.0.7 Dengue fever in Mauritius: Dengue virus infections are emerging as the major ones in Southeast Asia. Global warming may worsen the occurrence of dengue fever. Since very last few years mixed outbreak of chikungunya and periodic cases of dengue fever have been reported on R‚union Island and other South West Indian Ocean countries. From March 2005 till March 2006 it is estimated that about 204000 people in R‚union Island may have been infected by the chikungunya virus, which furthermore shows that there is presence of the transmitting vectors of the disease on the island which are also the vectors of dengue fever as well. Hereafter, the other South West Indian ocean countries were not spared from infection from the chikungunya virus. An outbreak of dengue fever was reported in Madagascar more specifically in the city of Toamasina that started mid-January 2006 and rare cases of chikungunya were also reported mid-February. Maldives also have suffered from a dengue outbreak in year 2006 where 602 people were suspected to be infected among which there were some severe form of dengue fever that is 64 dengue hemorrhagic fever cases and 9 cases of dengue shock syndrome (WHO 2006). In Mauritius the first case of dengue fever dates to the 1976s and it was contained thus limiting the disease from spreading. Then we had a case of imported dengue from a person who visited an endemic dengue area in January 2008 (CDCU). The main vectors of the disease remain the Aedes mosquitoes, among which the Aedes aegypti mosquito is the primary vector and Aedes albopictus the secondary one. The mosquito found to be spreading dengue fever and Chikungunya in Mauritius is the Aedes albopictus (CDCU 2009). It is to be noted that in Mauritius we had both the Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes, due to the intense anti-malaria campaign during the year 1952 the primary carrier of the dengue fever, the Aedes aegypti have been successfully eradicated. Still very minute amounts of this mosquito can be seen whereas the Aedes albopictus is abundant. Dengue is transmitted from person to person through the biting of infected mosquitoes. Most recently we had a short-lived epidemic of re-emerged dengue fever in Mauritius that started in the month of June 2009 which was imported. The mild fever was first localized in the city of Port Louis, where there were 192 cases and then we did have some sporadic cases in other regions of the island. Mosquito fogging and larviciding in whole Port Louis started on 3rd June 2009, and were repeated every seven days. Fogging was carried out outdoors early in the morning, early evenings and sometimes till late in the evenings (Dengue Unit 2009). The Ministry of Health and Quality of Life of Mauritius took the situation as being severe and all medium possible to contain the disease were put into action. Like the Special Mobile Force and manpower from other Ministries which joined the Ministry of Health to fight the dengue fever. Public alertness campaigns on the requisite to hunt and eliminate mosquito breeding sites at home and in the neighbourhood and to protect oneself against mosquito bites were carried out through radio, television and the press through a public private partnership. Detailed information leaflets were also distributed, door to door distribution of pamphlets showing pictures of possible breeding sites for mosquitoes and products to be used to prevent mosquito bite were carried out by the primary health care personnels. Target groups included the public, community groups and school children (Ramchurn et al, 2009). By the end of the month August no new or suspected cases of dengue were recorded in any of the countrys hospital. But still the control and prevention program were continued throughout the island as the summer season was coming near hence reappearance of the dengue fever was possible due to the ambient temperature, favorable for larvae development. The fear of having the virus again was due to the possibility of the infected mosquitoes to pass the virus to their progeny. Fortunately, till February 2010 no suspected case of dengue fever was reported from any in the country (Dengue Unit 2010). 2.1 Vector surveillance and control program Ever since mosquitoes are capable of transmitting diseases like dengue and chikungunya, till now it has not been possible to eradicate the mosquitoes completely from their originating site. The best way to monitor or control vector-borne diseases is to control or limit the population of the vector to such an extent that disease transmission is very low or even stopped. In order to achieve this goal, it is imperative to know all about the mosquito involved in the transmission of the disease. Detailed knowledge of all aspects such as the breeding sites, different features of the mosquito at different stages, feeding habits, mating, resting and structure and most importantly without forgetting the lifecycle of the mosquito, are the main required things in order to be able to break the chain of transmission. Furthermore, the only way to prevent infection of people who have not suffered from dengue is to control the population of dengue vector (Ooi et al.2001) and of course personal precaution has also proved to be effective in reducing the risk of being infected by a mosquito. Since no vaccine is yet available for dengue the only mode to control dengue fever is the control the amount of the disease vector that is of the Aedes mosquitoes. The control strategies of these mosquitoes are 1) carrying out larviciding -spraying a chemical called abate in any water retaining place which kill the larvae of the mosquitoes hence interrupting the cycle to be completed, 2) fogging operation- a thermal fogger is used to propel fumes of Aqua K-Othriner which when is in contact with a mosquito kills it, thus the amount of developed or simply mature mosquitoes are reduced and 3) health education- talks are organized for the members of the public, for children in schools, colleges, etc. Entomological survey is an important and integral part of dengue prevention and control. The effect of the intervention by the community can directly affect the ecology of the vectors that is the Aedes mosquitoes. The Communicable Disease Control Unit (CDCU) is the unit which is mostly concerned for the control of communicable diseases such as Malaria, Dengue fever, Chikungunya, and other infectious diseases. In Mauritius, surveillance, disease prevention and education of infectious diseases are mainly carried out by the Health Inspectorate Cadre. In Mauritius, we have the Public Health Act (Section 32A) which is used in case where there is presence of a mosquito borne disease in the island. The potential for predation to prevent pathogen invasion or reduce disease prevalence in a host population also has implications for the biological control of vector populations. Predators have been introduced, or proposed, as biological control agents of vectors for various diseases such as malaria, dengue fever and Lyme disease (Jenkins 1964; Legner 1995; Stauffer et al. 1997; Samish Rehacek 1999; Scholte et al. 2005; Kumar Hwang 2006; Ostfeld et al. 2006; Walker Lynch 2007). Several recent studies suggest that predator introductions led to a decline in local cases of dengue fever in Vietnam and Thailand (Kay Nam 2005; Kittayapong et al. 2008), and malaria in India (Ghosh et al. 2005; Ghosh Dash 2007). 2.2 Biology of Aedes albopictus (Skuse) Aedes albopictus are two winged insects from the family Culicidae of the order Diptera. They are among the best known groups due to their importance as pests and as vectors of diseases. They are easily identified due to a combination of the following characters: long trunk projecting head; charisma of scales on the wing veins, a tassel of scales along the posterior boundary of the wing, and the typical wing venation, the second, fourth and fifth longitudinal veins being branched (Miyagi and Toma 2000). Female mosquitoes feed on blood and they have highly specialized mothparts for piercing host skin and blood sucking (Wahid et al. 2002). Aedes species are normally day-time bitters and active during the day. During this time, they have peaks of landing and biting activity. The peak time for Aedes albopictus occurred about one hour after sunrise and then before sunset (Abu Hassan et al. 1996). Nevertheless, the rate of biting varies depending on the mosquito age and time of the day (Xue and Barnard 1996). CHAPTER 3 DATA COLLECTION 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, a summary of the various steps that was undertaken to finalize the research is attempted. The research work was started as from the month of September 2009 to the end of January 2010. 3.2 METHODOLOGY In order to assess the effectiveness of the control measures taken to prevent dengue fever, data were collected from the different partners who are involved in the control and prevention of dengue fever in Mauritius. Such data were collected from books, newspapers, published articles, magazines and official statistics from the Central Statistics Office, Dengue Unit, Communicable Disease Control Unit and the Ministry of Health Quality of Life. Moreover, constructive discussions were entertained with people who are in touch with the matters connecting to the piece of work. Search through the internet, review of available documents and properly classifying the information that would be used during the study. 3.3 METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF THE DATA OBTAINED Questions related with the way of application of the different control measures were selected for analysis from the filled questionnaires. Moreover, each particular question was analyzed by using SPSS software which provided the frequency and percentages and hence Microsoft Excel 2007 was used to express the data in forms of percentages, tables, figures, graphs, pie charts and charts. Chapter 4 Part I-Data Analysis 4.01 Introduction This chapter of the thesis will be dealing with the data collected from different stakeholders involved in the fight against dengue fever. Data collected mainly from the Communicable Disease Control Unit, Dengue Unit, and certain Health Offices of the country and the media will be expressed in figures. This section will be divided in to two parts: data analysis and press cot analysis. Much attention will be oriented towards the control measures in Port Louis, as the maximum number of cases occurred there and eventually the island in whole. 4.02 Progress of the disease through June 2009 in Port Louis Figure 4.1: Number of cases each day during the month of June 2009 From figure 4.1 it can be seen that the first case was detected on 2nd June 2009 and the maximum number of cases reported to the hospitals was around the 10th to 13th day of the same month. The number of confirmed cases by the end of June 2009 had decreased to less than five. 4.03 Age of people infected with dengue virus From the above chart (Fig 4.2) it can seen that about 34.55 % of the total number of cases (246 confirmed) of dengue were vulnerable ones that is the young and the elderly. 4.04 Aqua K Othriner used for fogging process Aqua K Othriner is a chemical used in mixture with another chemical substance called Nebolr, in thermal foggers to kill adult mosquitoes. Normally, the fogger produces fumes which in fact are fine droplets of the mixture which when in contact with a mosquito causes its death. The first day of fogging was started on 2nd June 2009 with a minimum cubic centimeter of Aqua K Othriner used, on the 7th day the maximum and throughout the rest of the days varying just a little in amount except for the 14th day. 4.05 Number of inspections carried out during the past 8 years throughout the Country Starting from the year 2001 till 2005 from the graph (fig 4.4) the number of inspections carried out by the health inspectorate cadre shows a slight decrease and suddenly in 2006 the number increases to approximately 3 fold than that in 2005. In year 2007, the amount of inspections carried again decreases to 112,087 and eventually for 2008 the number decreases a bit more. 4.06 Number of sanitary notices served during the past 8 years Public Health Act Sanitary notices are normally issued to the author of nuisance, as for in this case the notices served were to cause removal of water collected in used tyres, drums, roof tops, etc. From the year 2001 till 2005 the number of such type of notices served was ranging between 4933 and 8013. For 2006 the figure was the highest with 10657 of notices served and for the remaining 2 years a gradual decrease was noted. 4.07 Number of contraventions taken for none compliance with the Public Health Laws Notices Figur

Liver Cancer

l Liver cancer  or  hepatic cancer  (from the  Greek  hepar, meaning liver) is a  cancer  that originates in the  liver. Liver cancers are malignant tumors that grow on the surface or inside the liver. Liver tumors are discovered on medical imaging equipment (often by accident) or present themselves symptomatically as an abdominal mass,  abdominal pain,  jaundice, nausea or liver dysfunction. [1]  Liver cancers should not be confused with livermetastases, which are cancers that originate from organs elsewhere in the body and migrate to the liver.Hepatocellular carcinoma is cancer of the liver. Causes, incidence, and risk factorsHepatocellular carcinoma accounts for most liver cancers. This type of cancer occurs more often in men than women. It is usually seen in people age 50 or older. However, the age varies in different parts of the world. The disease is more common in parts of Africa and Asia than in North or South America and Europe. Hepatocellular carcinoma is not the same as  metastatic liver cancer, which starts in another organ (such as the breast or colon) and spreads to the liver.In most cases, the cause of liver cancer is usually scarring of the liver (cirrhosis). Cirrhosis may be caused by: Alcohol abuse (the most common cause in the United States) Autoimmune diseases  of the liver Hepatitis B  or  C  virus infection Inflammation of the liver that is long-term (chronic) Iron overload in the body (hemochromatosis) Patients with hepatitis B or C are at risk for liver cancer, even if they have not developed cirrhosis Symptoms Abdominal pain  or tenderness, especially in the upper-right part Easy bruising or bleedingEnlarged abdomen Yellow skin or eyes (jaundice) Signs and testsPhysical examination may show an enlarged, tender liver. Tests include: Abdominal CT scan Abdominal ultrasound Liver biopsy Liver enzymes (liver function tests) Liver  MRI Serum alpha fetoprotein Some high-risk patients may get regular blood te sts and ultrasounds to see whether tumors are developing TreatmentAggressive surgery or a liver transplant can successfully treat small or slow-growing tumors if they are diagnosed early. However, few patients are diagnosed early.Dying of Breast Cancer in the 1800sChemotherapy delivered straight into the liver with a catheter can help, but it will not cure the disease. Radiation treatments in the area of the cancer may also be helpful. However, many patients have liver cirrhosis or other liver diseases that make these treatments more difficult. Sorafenib tosylate (Nexavar), an oral medicine that blocks tumor growth, is now approved for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma Expectations (prognosis)The usual outcome is poor, because only 10 – 20% of hepatocellular carcinomas can be removed completely using surgery.If the cancer cannot be completely removed, the disease is usually fatal within 3 – 6 months. However, survival can vary, and occasionally people wil l survive much longer than 6 months Complications Gastrointestinal bleeding Liver failure Spread (metastasis) of the cancer PreventionPreventing and treating viral hepatitis may help reduce your risk. Childhood vaccination against hepatitis B may reduce the risk of liver cancer in the future. Avoid drinking excessive amounts of alcohol. Certain patients may benefit from screening for hemochromatosis.If you have chronic hepatitis or known cirrhosis, periodic screening with liver ultrasound or measurement of blood alpha fetoprotein levels may help detect this cancer early. Biasanya pesakit kanser hanya menyedari dia mengidap kanser bila penyakitnya sudah pada peringkat 4. Dan, selalunya keadaan ini dianggap sudah terlalu lewat. Sebenarnya. dari peringkat awal kanser menyerang tubuh kita, tanda-tanda penyakit ini sudah ada tetapi kita sering mengandaikan yang tanda-tanda itu sebagai ‘Tidak apa-apa’, cuma sakit biasa sahaja.Kita pun mengambil langkah ‘bijak’ ki ta sendiri iaitu menelan panadol atau membeli ubat di farmasi. Adakah anda pernah membuat pemeriksaan tahunan seperti ujian colonoscopies atau ujian PSA? Tentu ramai yang menggelengkan kepala. Tidak mengapa kerana meskipun penting, setakat membuat ujian seperti itu belum tentu dapat melindungi anda daripada kanser. Anda tentu tidak mahu menyertai barisan pesakit kanser yang terlambat menyedari, bukan? Jadi, perhatikan perkara-perkara berikut. Mungkinkah ia merupakan penggera awal, notis pemberitahuan bahawa sel-sel kanser sedang mula bertapak dalam tubuh anda? Liver Cancer l Liver cancer  or  hepatic cancer  (from the  Greek  hepar, meaning liver) is a  cancer  that originates in the  liver. Liver cancers are malignant tumors that grow on the surface or inside the liver. Liver tumors are discovered on medical imaging equipment (often by accident) or present themselves symptomatically as an abdominal mass,  abdominal pain,  jaundice, nausea or liver dysfunction. [1]  Liver cancers should not be confused with livermetastases, which are cancers that originate from organs elsewhere in the body and migrate to the liver.Hepatocellular carcinoma is cancer of the liver. Causes, incidence, and risk factorsHepatocellular carcinoma accounts for most liver cancers. This type of cancer occurs more often in men than women. It is usually seen in people age 50 or older. However, the age varies in different parts of the world. The disease is more common in parts of Africa and Asia than in North or South America and Europe. Hepatocellular carcinoma is not the same as  metastatic liver cancer, which starts in another organ (such as the breast or colon) and spreads to the liver.In most cases, the cause of liver cancer is usually scarring of the liver (cirrhosis). Cirrhosis may be caused by: Alcohol abuse (the most common cause in the United States) Autoimmune diseases  of the liver Hepatitis B  or  C  virus infection Inflammation of the liver that is long-term (chronic) Iron overload in the body (hemochromatosis) Patients with hepatitis B or C are at risk for liver cancer, even if they have not developed cirrhosis Symptoms Abdominal pain  or tenderness, especially in the upper-right part Easy bruising or bleedingEnlarged abdomen Yellow skin or eyes (jaundice) Signs and testsPhysical examination may show an enlarged, tender liver. Tests include: Abdominal CT scan Abdominal ultrasound Liver biopsy Liver enzymes (liver function tests) Liver  MRI Serum alpha fetoprotein Some high-risk patients may get regular blood te sts and ultrasounds to see whether tumors are developing TreatmentAggressive surgery or a liver transplant can successfully treat small or slow-growing tumors if they are diagnosed early. However, few patients are diagnosed early.Dying of Breast Cancer in the 1800sChemotherapy delivered straight into the liver with a catheter can help, but it will not cure the disease. Radiation treatments in the area of the cancer may also be helpful. However, many patients have liver cirrhosis or other liver diseases that make these treatments more difficult. Sorafenib tosylate (Nexavar), an oral medicine that blocks tumor growth, is now approved for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma Expectations (prognosis)The usual outcome is poor, because only 10 – 20% of hepatocellular carcinomas can be removed completely using surgery.If the cancer cannot be completely removed, the disease is usually fatal within 3 – 6 months. However, survival can vary, and occasionally people wil l survive much longer than 6 months Complications Gastrointestinal bleeding Liver failure Spread (metastasis) of the cancer PreventionPreventing and treating viral hepatitis may help reduce your risk. Childhood vaccination against hepatitis B may reduce the risk of liver cancer in the future. Avoid drinking excessive amounts of alcohol. Certain patients may benefit from screening for hemochromatosis.If you have chronic hepatitis or known cirrhosis, periodic screening with liver ultrasound or measurement of blood alpha fetoprotein levels may help detect this cancer early. Biasanya pesakit kanser hanya menyedari dia mengidap kanser bila penyakitnya sudah pada peringkat 4. Dan, selalunya keadaan ini dianggap sudah terlalu lewat. Sebenarnya. dari peringkat awal kanser menyerang tubuh kita, tanda-tanda penyakit ini sudah ada tetapi kita sering mengandaikan yang tanda-tanda itu sebagai ‘Tidak apa-apa’, cuma sakit biasa sahaja.Kita pun mengambil langkah ‘bijak’ ki ta sendiri iaitu menelan panadol atau membeli ubat di farmasi. Adakah anda pernah membuat pemeriksaan tahunan seperti ujian colonoscopies atau ujian PSA? Tentu ramai yang menggelengkan kepala. Tidak mengapa kerana meskipun penting, setakat membuat ujian seperti itu belum tentu dapat melindungi anda daripada kanser. Anda tentu tidak mahu menyertai barisan pesakit kanser yang terlambat menyedari, bukan? Jadi, perhatikan perkara-perkara berikut. Mungkinkah ia merupakan penggera awal, notis pemberitahuan bahawa sel-sel kanser sedang mula bertapak dalam tubuh anda?

Horney’s theory Essay

1. Samara demonstrates Horney’s â€Å"moving towards† neurosis meaning she deals with anxiety by an excessive interest in being accepted, needed, and approved of. We first learn this in the first paragraph where it says, â€Å"she is sensitive to the needs of others.† She is constantly looking for a boy to accept her and does all that she can to make sure he is happy. An example of this would be when she cooks him big dinners and only goes to see movies he will like to. She get very bad anxiety when her boyfriends would hang out with other girls, which would lead her to become very possessive. 2. According to Horney’s theory, what leads Samara’s neurotic behavior is her tendency to take on a dependent role compared to others and her unlimited desire for love. â€Å"Moving towards† people see others as potential resources who can support them and help reduce their anxiety of being along so they seek love, approval, and someone to get close with in order to save them. 3. Samara’s self-image is not an accurate one. She does not have a very accurate idea of who she is. She is very insecure and relies on other people to help build her up therefore she is not able to realize her own potential and achieve self-realization. According to Horney’s theory, there is a discrepancy between Samara’s idealized self versus the real image of herself. Samara’s idealized self was created to overcome Samara’s feelings of inferiority and makes her try and possess all great qualities. This is the reason she is doing everything in her power to make her boyfriend at the time happy and doing all things for him. It is also the reason that Samara never thinks she is doing anything wrong. On the other hand, Samara’s real self is the reason behind all of her self-criticism and hate that is driving her towards always needing to be loved. Her ideal self is taking over her real self and is what is controlling her behavior and actions. 4. For Samara, there is a huge discrepancy between her organismic self and her perceived self. Samara’s organismic self is who she actually is, so she according to the reading Samara is someone is comes across as very insecure, demanding, lonely, and protective. She tries too hard to make her boyfriends happy. Her ideal self is the person she really thinks she is. Samara never  understands why boys don’t love her and why she isn’t married yet even though us as readers could tell right away what the issues were. Samara doesn’t understand her organismic self and that is what is causing Samara’s loneliness. 5. Another theory that could be useful in describing Samara is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, which states that people possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards to unconscious desires. Samara is constantly looking to make herself happy and is relying on other things besides her own self to become happy. According to this theory Samara is stuck on the level of love and belonginess needs meaning she is seeking friendship, intimacy, affection and love. The reading says that Samara is rarely ever alone because once her and a boy break up she immediately goes on to another boy. 6. Carl Roger’s phenomenological theory is something that could change how Samara saw herself, her boyfriends, and how she acted towards her boyfriends. The concept of self-actualization refers to someone moving from a dependent person to an independent person and focuses on someone reducing their tension and their needs, which will help bring them more pleasures and satisfaction. Right now, Samara is also tense because she is worry about how to make another person happy hoping that their happiness will make sure they keep loving her. If Samara were to develop more confidence and trust she would be able to see all the good things she has going on and all of her strengths that will allow her to become a more independent person. Once she is able to do that she will be able to find someone else who will love her and they can have a much more healthy relationship than she has had in the past.

Eteocles and Polynices

Eteocles and Polynices Eteocles and Polynices were the sons of the classic Greek tragic hero and Theban king Oedipus, who fought each other for the control of Thebes after their father abdicated. The Oedipus story is part of the Theban cycle and told most famously by the Greek poet Sophocles. After decades of ruling Thebes, Oedipus discovered he had been at the mercy of a prophecy cast before his birth. Fulfilling the curse, Oedipus had unwittingly killed his own father Laius, and married and fathered four children by his mother Jocasta. In rage and horror, Oedipus blinded himself and abandoned his throne. As he left, Oedipus cursed his own two grown sons/brothers, Eteocles and Polynices had been left to rule Thebes, but Oedipus doomed them to kill each other. The 17th-century painting by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo shows the fulfillment of that curse, their deaths at each others hand. Owning the Throne The Greek poet Aeschylus told the Eteocles and Polynices story in his award-winning trilogy on the topic, Seven Against Thebes, In the final play, the brothers fight  each other for possession of the throne of Thebes. At first, they had agreed to rule Thebes jointly by alternating years in power, but after his first year, Eteocles refused to step down. To gain the rule of Thebes, Polynices needed warriors, but Theban men within the city would only fight for his brother. Instead, Polynices gathered a group of men from Argos. There were seven gates to Thebes, and Polynices selected seven captains to lead the charges against each gate. To fight them and protect the gates, Eteocles selected the best-qualified man in Thebes to challenge the specific Argive adversary, so there are seven Theban counterparts to the Argive attackers. The seven pairs are: Tydeus vs. MelanippusCapaneus vs. PolyphontesEteoclus vs. MegareusHippomedon vs. HyperbiusParthenopeus vs.  ActorAmphiaraus vs. LasthenesPolynices vs. Eteocles The battles end when the two brothers kill each other with swords. In the sequel to the battle between Eteocles and Polynices, the successors of the fallen Argives, known as the Epigoni, win control of Thebes. Eteocles was buried honorably, but the traitor Polynices was not, leading to their sister Antigones own tragedy.

Europe essays

Europe essays Europe in the 12th century A.D. was in many ways the same as Europe in the 14th century, but in certain key ways it was also different, with many changes for the better. First of all, in the 12th century, Europe was still in the Middle Ages. Emphasis was on religion, and science was not very advanced. However, towards the 14th century, things began to change. This was the beginning of the Renaissance, a period of a revival in classical learning, new scientific discoveries, and new The government in the Middle Ages was based on feudalism. Feudalism is when people flock to a lord and pledge their allegiance to him, becoming his vassals. They agreed to serve him on his manor and/or become part of his army. Vassals would also pledge to bring more armed men to the lord's cause in times of war. In exchange for this service, the lord pledged to provide protection and security for all of his vassals. This seemed a fairly even trade in these rough and chaotic times, and so many people were thus becoming vassals of lords. Feudalism began because weak kings needed to transfer power over to other people, because they could not handle it all themselves. However, feudalism was a good arrangement for many people in the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, however, the notion of the lord's army consisting of vassals became obsolete with the onset of mercenary armies and the formation of towns and cities. Therefore, feudalism ceased to exist in the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, nations, towns, and cities came to exist. With these came the feeling of patriotism and loyalty to one's ruler. The rulerships of towns, nations, and cities also began with the development of strong monarchies and kingdoms. This resulted from the breakdown of feudalism. The people still looked for protection, and since there were no more feudal manors, the king assumed the role of protector. ...

Public Affair class summary #5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Public Affair class summary #5 - Essay Example The interest of the reporter refers to what really inspired the reporter to do a particular story. This can be determined by focusing on how the reporter brings out the story or by tracking down his or her past coverage in the media outlets. The next step, as noted by Fitch, in interacting with reporters entails making calls to a reporter. Before contact with a reporter, it is important to consider various tips effective for handling the reporter. For instance, face-to-face communication will require one to maintain eye contact with the reporter while offering responses. Key points should be emphasized using clear and well-structured statements. It is also important that comments made to a report should be specific whether they are going to be on-record or off-record. Both positive and negative information need to be handled professionally in order to avoid any bias or ambiguity. It is important to maintain a positive attitude and tone during any interaction with a reporter to avoid occurrence of any reporter problems during a media interview. Brevity and precision are always preferred during media interviews or in statements written to the media, as Fitch and Holt put it ‘sometimes less is more’. There is a need to create a good rapport with the reporter to win his or her attention. In this chapter, Fitch provides an overview of various forms of media. They include print media, Radio, Television and the internet. The chapter starts by analysing various forms of print media. The chapter indicates that these forms of media form the bulk of where most Americans get their news. They include magazines, newspapers or journal websites. Current financial information can be accessed by reading daybooks recording. Television medium is another form of media used in communication. Television stations offer specific programs aimed at meeting viewers expectations and needs. The programs range from talk

Organizing, Decision-Making, Ethics, and the Law in Management - Case Essay - 1

Organizing, Decision-Making, Ethics, and the Law in Management - Case Study - The Vacation Request [S3] - Essay Example Properly communicated and followed reporting lines result in better clarity of objectives and lesser instances of mismanagement occur with effective controlling and monitoring mechanisms enhancing productivity of employees. Small businesses establish themselves quickly but most of the time they fail to convert themselves in to large enterprises as they fail to adopt or practice the formal management structures and reporting lines, hence decision making is ineffective or prolonged and the owner is involved in micro management of issues. With properly defined roles, job descriptions and established reporting lines small businesses can enhance their operations with supervisors entrusted to manage their staff while senior management concentrates on core business planning activities. In the case study Harry should have informed Tom to take approval from his reporting authority, i.e. Luther Jones. In this particular instance the decision on whether the leave should be approved or not was not made by the competent authority. In fact the authority of Luther was bypassed; this issue de-motivates the manager and encourages employees to reach senior management for their small issues this phenomenon shifts the focus of senior management from core business to micro managing and a loss of trust occurs amongst all three parties. Harry would not trust Luther’s ability to supervise Tom, Luther would not trust Tom in future and would develop negative feelings for Harry and Tom and other team members would always look up to Harry for trivial decisions related to their own employment. All three parties share the blame in this instance, Tom should have followed the hierarchy, Harry should have consulted Luther or should have turned down Tom sending him to Luther for approval and Luther should have met and discussed his responsibilities with Harry in order to avoid such confusions. In